190 | Glossary
Glossary of Key Terms
This glossary provides definitions of key terms used in the California English
Language Development Standards (CA ELD Standards) and in related chapters.
Many of these terms derive from traditional grammar and from linguistics, and
some have evolved in their meaning or have different meanings that vary by
linguistic tradition. The definitions provided here are intended to be teacher-
friendly and are specific to use within the CA ELD Standards and related
chapters.
adjectives and adjective phrases. Adjectives provide details about (or modify)
nouns or pronouns. For example, adjectives such as appalling, obnoxious,
desperate, alluring, and pleasant allow speakers and writers to add nuance and
precision to a description of a person or thing. An adjective can be made even
more precise by adding pre- or post-modifiers, as shown in the following table:
1
Adjective phrase
Pre-modifier Head adjective Post-modifier
She was
quite distraught.
even more distraught than yesterday.
so distraught that she couldn’t eat.
Note: In addition to the terminology found in the glossary, the terms listed below were refer-
enced where relevant in the CA ELD Standards, but are not summarized here. Appendix A (NGA
Center for Best Practices and CCSSO 2010, referenced in chapter 5) provides extensive and
detailed explanations and elaboration of these terms: text complexity, Reading Foundational
Skills, text types: argument (informational/explanatory writing and narrative writing), oral
language development, conventions and knowledge of language, and
acquiring vocabulary.
adverbs. Adverbs add detail to (or modify) verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
about when, where, why, or the conditions under which something happens or
happened. Examples are shown below (the adverb is in boldface, and the word
that it modifies is italicized).
Sentence with adverb Word modified
He ate his dinner slowly. Verb
It was a very graceful gesture. Adjective
She moved extremely quickly across the room. Adverb
clause. A clause is a unit of meaning that expresses a message. A clause
always contains a verb (e.g., go) and is usually accompanied by a subject noun
or noun phrase (e.g., She went). A clause may be independent or dependent.
independent clause (also known as the main clause). A clause that con-
tains a complete idea and can stand alone (independently) as a complete
sentence. For example:
The bees swarmed in the attic.
I couldn’t hear anything.
Two independent clauses can be combined to form a compound sentence
by using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet). For
example:
The bees swarmed in the attic, but I couldn’t hear anything.
Glossary | 191
dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause). A clause
that is dependent on the independent (or main) clause for its meaning
and therefore cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. Dependent
clauses are formed in several different ways. Two examples are
provided below.
Use of a subordinating conjunction. A subordinating conjunction
(e.g., because, although, if) introduces a dependent (or subordinate)
clause. Different kinds of subordinating conjunctions create different
types of relationships between the clauses. In the first example below,
the relationship is one of cause. In the second example, the relation-
ship is one of concession. The dependent clauses are italicized, and
the subordinating conjunctions are in boldface.
Because they were hungry,
the horses ate all the hay.
Although she loves to swim,
she decided not to go to the pool
today.
Use of a relative pronoun. A relative pronoun (e.g., that, who, whom,
which, whose) introduces a relative clause (a type of embedded
clause also called an adjective clause). Sometimes, the relative
pronoun is omitted. In the following examples, the dependent clause is
italicized, and the relative pronoun is in boldface. Words that can be
omitted are in brackets.
Butteries are winged insects
that undergo complete metamor-
phosis.
He’s the teacher
who changed my life.
Serotonin is a natural neurotransmitter
[that is] produced in
the human body.
cohesion. Cohesion refers to how information is connected and flows in a text.
A cohesive text is created through a variety of cohesive devices that facilitate
understanding across the text or discourse. One device is to refer back to
people, ideas, or things with pronouns or synonyms throughout a text so as not
to be repetitive (e.g., replacing the first settlers with they). Another is to link
clauses, sentences, and larger chunks of text with conjunctions, such as transi-
tion words (e.g., in contrast, consequently, next).
co
nnecting words and phrases. Connecting words and phrases signal how
different parts of a text are linked. In narratives and other text types organized
by time or sequences of events, temporal connectives (e.g., first, next, after
awhile, the next day) are often used. In text types organized around ideas,
such as arguments and explanations, connectives may be used in various ways
to show relationships between ideas (e.g., on the contrary, for example); to
organize events or sequence ideas (e.g., previously, until that time, first of all,
to conclude); or to add information (e.g., in addition, furthermore).
context. Context refers to the environment in which language is used, including
content area, topic, audience, text type, and mode of communication.
modality. Modality refers to the degree of ability, necessity, obligation, prohibi-
tion, certainty, or possibility of an action or situation. Understanding of modality
allows speakers and writers to temper statements, give information about the
degree of obligation or certainty of a situation or idea, or express the degree to
which we are willing to entertain other possibilities may be considered.
modal adverb. High-modality adverbs include definitely, absolutely, and
certainly. Medium-modality adverbs include probably and apparently.
Low-modality adverbs include possibly, perhaps, and maybe.
modal auxiliary. High-modality auxiliaries include must and will. Medium-
modality auxiliaries include should and need to. Low-modality auxiliaries
include could and might.
mood. There are a variety of ways to structure messages into statements,
questions, commands, and so on, depending on the relationship between the
speakers and listeners or the writers and readers. Examples of some of the
main sentence types identified by mood follow.
Declarative (statements):
Bats are mammals.
Once upon a time, there was a little girl who loved books.
You’re impossible to live with.
192 | Glossary
Interrogative (questions):
How do you solve this problem?
What’s your name?
Why are you here?
Imperative (commands):
Don’t you ever do that again!
Put that over there, please.
Subjunctive (expressing wishes, desires, or suggestions):
I wish I were younger.
If I were you, I wouldn’t boast so loudly.
It is necessary that I be allowed to participate in this event.
nominalization. Nominalization is the process of creating a noun or noun
phrase from another part of speech or condensing large amounts of information
(e.g., an event or concept) into a noun or noun phrase. Often, a verb or verb
phrase is nominalized (e.g., They destroyed the rain forest.
The destruction
of the rain forest), though adjectives are nominalized as well (e.g., strong
strength; different difference). Nominalization can also collapse a clause or
even multiple clauses at once. For example, in conversational language, a stu-
dent might say, “The ranchers came to the rain forest, and they cut down all the
trees. The next year, the rain flooded many areas of the rain forest.” With nomi-
nalization, these three clauses can be collapsed into one clause: “The arrival of
the ranchers and the clearing of the rainforest led to widespread flooding.”
nouns and noun phrases. Nouns and noun phrases represent people, places,
things, or ideas. A noun phrase includes a noun (e.g., ball) plus its modifiers,
including articles (e.g., the ball) and adjectives (e.g., the blue ball).
expanding noun phrases. More detail can be added to nouns by expand-
ing the noun phrase with pre- and post-modifiers (words that come before
and after the head noun). In the following example, the head noun is in
boldface, and modifiers are added incrementally:
frog That frog That green frog That fat green frog That very fat
green frog That very fat green frog on the rock
prepositions and prepositional phrases. A preposition (e.g., to, of, with, at, in,
over, through) combines with a noun or noun phrase to form a prepositional
phrase. Prepositional phrases provide more information or specific details
about people, things, ideas, activities, or events in a sentence. Specifically,
they enable a writer or speaker to add detail about where things are, why things
occur, or how things are in comparison to other things. Prepositional phrases
can be used to locate something in space or time (e.g., under the table, on the
moon); to show reason (e.g., due to the rain), purpose (e.g., for tomorrow), or
comparison (e.g., like a dog); or to specify which thing is referenced (e.g., the
lady with the blue hat).
register. Register refers to variation in the vocabulary, grammar, and discourse
of a language to meet the expectations of a particular context. A context can
be defined by numerous elements, such as audience, task, purpose, setting,
social relationship, and mode of communication (written versus spoken).
Specific examples of contextual variables are the nature of the communicative
activity (e.g., talking with someone about a movie, persuading someone in a
debate, or writing a science report); the nature of the relationship between the
language users in the activity (e.g., friend-to-friend, expert-to-learner); the sub-
ject matter and topic (e.g., photosynthesis in science, the Civil War in history);
and the medium through which a message is conveyed (e.g., a text message
versus an essay).
scaffolding.*
2
Scaffolding is temporary guidance or assistance provided to
a student by a teacher, another adult, or a more capable peer, enabling
the student to perform a task he or she otherwise would not be able to do
alone, with the goal of fostering the student’s capacity to perform the task on
his or her own later on. (Though Vygotsky himself does not use the term
scaffolding, the educational meaning of the term relates closely to his
concept of the zone of proximal development. See L. S. Vygotsky [1978].
Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.)
*This definition, including the parenthetical note, is drawn directly from page 43 of Appendix A
(NGA Center for Best Practices and CCSSO [2010], referenced in chapter 5); see http://www.
corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_A.pdf
(accessed October 23, 2013).
Glossary | 193
See chapter 4, “Theoretical Foundations and the Research Base of the English
Language Development Standards,” for further explanation of scaffolding for
English learners.
sentences. There are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and
compound–complex.
Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause. See the example
below (the independent clause is italicized, and the verb is in boldface):
Earthworms are invertebrates.
One interesting thing about earthworms is their regeneration
ability.
Compound sentences consist of two or more independent clauses con-
nected with coordinating conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or, so). An example
is shown below (the independent clauses are in italics, and the verbs are in
boldface):
Earthworms have no legs, but they do have ve hearts.
Complex sentences consist of one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses connected with a subordinating conjunction (e.g.,
because, when, although). An example is shown below (the independent
clause is in boldface, and the dependent clauses are italicized):
If you want to graduate,
you need to pass your classes.
Her rst lm was a huge success,
although she’d never made
a movie before.
Compound–complex sentences consist of at least two independent
clauses and one or more dependent clauses. An example is shown below
(the independent clauses are in boldface, and the dependent clause is
italicized):
Although I’d love to go to the soccer game,
I haven’t nished
my homework yet,
and
I also need to wash the dishes.
shades of meaning. Shades of meaning can be created by using various
language resources—including vocabulary, figurative language, phrasing, using
dependent clauses to begin sentences in order to emphasize something,
and so forth. For example, vocabulary can be used to evaluate (e.g., Misty
was a stubborn horse) or express degree or intensity (e.g., It’s very likely that
; It was an extremely gloomy room). In addition, phrases and clauses
can be used to create nuances or precision and to shape how the message will
be interpreted by readers or listeners. This often occurs at the beginning of
sentences (e.g., In my opinion,
; Bizarrely, she interrupted ).
As English learners progress through the grades, they learn to create shades of
meaning in increasingly sophisticated and subtle ways in order to cause a cer-
tain reaction in the reader (e.g., to build suspense or characterize a historical
figure) or to persuade readers to believe something or to take action.
verbs and verb phrases. Verbs are used to express happenings, doings, and
states of being. A verb phrase may consist of a single verb (e.g., She ran) or a
number of words (auxiliary verbs and other infinitive or participle constructions)
around the verb (e.g., She might have been running).
verb types. There are different types of verbs that create precision in texts.
The CA ELD Standards refer to four types of verbs:
Doing/action verbs (e.g., go, take, gather, abandon)
Saying verbs (e.g., ask, say, suggest, explain, promise)
Being/having verbs (e.g., am/is/are, seem, appear, symbolize, have,
include)
Thinking/feeling verbs (e.g., know, decide, dislike, smell)
verb tenses. Verb tenses (present, past, future, simple, progressive, and
perfect) help to convey time relationships, status of completion, or habitu-
alness of an activity, or state denoted by the verb (e.g., she ran yesterday;
she runs every day; she will run tomorrow; she has been running since
she was in college).
194 | Glossary
12-010 PR13-0018 11-14 5,000
vocabulary. The CA ELD Standards and the CA CCSS for ELA/Literacy define
three categories of vocabulary.
1. Domain-specific vocabulary. Vocabulary that is specific to a particular
discipline (field of study, or domain). Domain-specific words and phrases
carry content meaning (e.g., lava, hypotenuse, chromosome, democratic,
stanza).
2. General academic vocabulary. Vocabulary that is found across text types,
particularly in written texts, that provides more nuanced or sophisticated
ways of expressing meaning than everyday language (e.g., devastation,
reluctance, significantly, misfortune, specificity).
3. Conversational vocabulary. The vocabulary of everyday interaction
(e.g., run, table, friend). This is also referred to as frequently occurring
vocabulary or everyday vocabulary.
voice (active and passive). In addition to verb types and tenses, sentences
c
an be structured in the active voice (He told the children to do their best) or
the passive voice (The children were told to do their best).
There are a number of reasons to choose the passive voice over the active
voice. One reason often seen in academic texts is to suppress the human
agents in an event, discovery, and so on, either because the event or discovery
is important or because the speaker or writer does not wish to reveal who is
responsible for certain acts. For example:
The discovery that “junk DNA” actually plays critical roles in con-
trolling cell, tissue, and organ behavior was rst made last year.
(Here, the scientists who made the discovery are not as important as
the discovery.)
Mistakes were made.
(A conscious effort was made to conceal the identities of the people
who made the mistakes.)
