Microsoft Word - Stuckey Interpretive Essay PDF 12.18.17.docx

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!

Mary!E.!Stuckey:!mstuckey@psu.edu!

Last!updated:!December!2017!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-,!ISSN!#1932-9539.!Available!at!http://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/.!!

FRANKLIN!D.!ROOSEVELT,!“ADDRESS!OF!THE!PRESIDENT!TO!THE!CONGRESS!OF!THE!UNITED!

STATES!BROADCAST!FROM!THE!CAPITOL,!WASHINGTON,!D.C.”!!(8!DECEMBER!1941)!

Mary!E.!Stuckey!

Penn!State!University!

Abstract:!Following!Japanese!attacks!on!Pearl!Harbor!and!other!military!bases!in!the!Pacific!on!

December!7,!1941,!President!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt!asked!Congress!for!a!declaration!of!war!

against!Japan.!That!speech!is!an!exemplar!of!the!genre!of!war!rhetoric;!it!also!stands!as!the!last!

such!request!from!any!U.S.!president.!The!speech!also!helped!set!the!terms!for!the!war!and!the!

role!FDR!hoped!the!nation!would!play!in!the!world!after!peace!was!achieved.!!

Keywords:!World!War!II,!genre,!anti-interventionism,!internationalism!

! On!December!8,!1941,!at!12:30!pm,!President!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt!addressed!a!Joint!

Session!of!the!U.S.!Congress,!requesting!a!declaration!of!war!against!the!Empire!of!Japan.!The!

resulting!declaration!moved!to!an!immediate!vote,!passing!the!Senate!by!a!vote!of!82-0,!and!

then!the!House!with!a!vote!of!388-1.!Jeannette!Rankin!(R-MT)!was!the!only!dissenting!vote.!By!

1:10!pm!that!day,!the!United!States!was!legally!at!war.!But!the!U.S.!had!been!inching!closer!to!

war!ever!since!a!September!day!in!1939!when!the!forces!of!the!Third!Reich!invaded!Poland!and!

began!what!would!become!the!Second!World!War.!Most!notably,!Congress!passed!HR!1776,!

more!commonly!known!as!“Lend-Lease,”!in!March!1940,!sending!material!aid!first!to!Great!

Britain!and!then!to!the!USSR.!By!July!1941,!the!U.S.!had!stationed!troops!in!Iceland!and!

Greenland.!In!September!of!that!year,!after!the!sinking!of!the!.+%%+/'the!president!authorized!

the!navy!to!“shoot!on!sight”!any!ships!that!threatened!harm.!That!October,!after!the!011'

2%,+3%-'was!sunk,!FDR!armed!the!Merchant!Marine.!While!no!legal!state!of!war!existed!prior!to!

December!8,!1941,!and!certainly!the!U.S.!was!involved!in!no!overt!hostilities!in!the!Pacific,!

tensions!between!the!U.S.!and!the!Axis!powers!had!been!steadily!increasing!for!years.!!

Efforts!were!also!underway!to!mitigate!some!of!those!tensions,!especially!with!Japan.!

Throughout!1941,!the!two!nations!had!been!involved!in!a!series!of!negotiations!over!trade!and!

military!rights!in!the!Pacific;!diplomatic!relations!still!existed!between!them!at!the!time!of!the!

attacks.!There!is!evidence!that!the!Japanese!intended!those!attacks!as!a!preemptive!strike,!

hoping!to!keep!the!U.S.!navy!out!of!what!became!the!Pacific!Theater!of!Operations,!and!thus!

increasing!their!ability!to!act!against!the!British!and!her!allies!there.

!There!is!no!question!that!

the!attacks!were!devastating!to!the!Allied!cause.!Eight!American!battleships!were!damaged;!

one,!the!011'4+#5"3,'was!left!in!place!as!a!memorial!to!the!fallen.

!The!Japanese!also!damaged!

three!cruisers,!three!destroyers,!a!minelayer,!and!a!training!ship.!Nearly!200!planes!were!lost,!

and!the!military!base!at!Pearl!Harbor!itself!sustained!major!damage.!Much!worse!than!the!

damage!to!ships,!planes,!and!facilities,!more!than!2,400!people!were!killed;!roughly!another!

1,700!were!wounded.!It!was!the!first!and!most!devastating!attack!by!a!foreign!power!on!U.S.!

soil!since!the!early!days!of!the!republic.!The!news!sent!shock!waves!throughout!the!nation.!The!

next!day,!the!president!asked!Congress!for!a!declaration!of!war.!

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That!speech,!widely!considered!one!of!the!best!given!by!this!famously!eloquent!

president,

!is!not!only!an!important!piece!of!rhetoric!in!its!own!right.!It!is!also!the!last!such!

request!made!by!a!president.!While!the!U.S.!has!been!almost!continuously!under!arms!since!

the!end!of!WWII,!no!president!since!Roosevelt!has!asked!for!a!formal!declaration!of!war.!The!

speech!thus!stands!as!the!end!of!an!era!of!national!war-making.!!

This!is!especially!important,!since!the!U.S.,!after!the!end!of!that!war,!assumed!a!primary!

place!in!the!world!order,!first!as!the!only!atomic!power,!then!as!the!“leader!of!the!free!world”!

during!the!Cold!War.!Then!it!became!the!world’s!“lone!superpower”!following!the!collapse!of!

the!Soviet!Union.!Increasingly,!it!is!a!nation!unsure!of!the!position!it!wishes!to!play.!As!the!U.S.!

shudders!between!contemporary!versions!of!isolationism!and!engagement,!it!is!worth!

remembering!how!it!assumed!the!stature!of!a!world!power!and!the!consequences!of!that!

assumption.!The!prelude!to!this!speech,!the!events!of!December!7!and!8,!1941,!and!FDR’s!

conduct!of!the!war!that!followed,!had!much!to!do!with!the!nation’s!assumption!of!global!

power.

!These!are!all!encapsulated!in!this!short!speech.!

In!this!essay,!I!begin!by!laying!out!the!contemporary!context!of!the!speech,!paying!

particular!attention!to!the!“Great!Debate”!over!the!appropriate!nature!and!extent!of!American!

involvement!in!the!Second!World!War.!I!then!turn!to!the!speech!itself,!examining!it!as!it!

evolved!over!the!course!of!the!hours!between!the!initial!attack!and!the!moment!the!speech!

was!delivered!before!Congress,!and!locating!it!both!as!an!exemplar!of!the!genre!and!examining!

its!unique!features.!I!conclude!with!a!discussion!of!the!legacy!of!the!speech!and!how!it!

organizes!the!American!role!in!the!war!and!the!peace!that!followed.!!

Historical!Context!

Franklin!D.!Roosevelt!had!been!president!for!almost!a!decade!in!1941.!He!was!the!first!

(and!only)!chief!executive!to!serve!more!than!the!two!terms—a!precedent!by!George!

Washington.!The!scion!of!a!wealthy!family!and!cousin!of!Republican!President!Theodore!

Roosevelt,!FDR!took!office!during!the!greatest!economic!crisis!in!the!nation’s!history.

!His!first!

two!terms!were!dedicated!to!addressing!the!domestic!economic!situation;!neither!the!

American!public!nor!its!elected!leaders!were!interested!in!looking!outward.

!But!as!war!clouds!

gathered!over!Europe!and!the!Pacific,!the!debates!over!whether!the!U.S.!should!become!

involved,!and!if!so,!to!what!extent,!became!increasingly!heated.!The!“Great!Debate”!over!

American!foreign!policy!raged!across!the!nation!from!the!mid-1930s!until!the!attack!on!Pearl!

Harbor,!involving!Congress,!popular!culture,!and!the!president.

The!national!commitment!to!non-intervention!during!the!1920s!and!1930s!had!a!lot!to!

do!with!its!experience!in!the!Great!War.!Having!been!told!by!President!Wilson!that!it!was!a!war!

to!make!the!“world!safe!for!democracy,”

!Americans!became!ever!more!likely!to!believe!their!

countrymen!had!actually!fought!and!died!in!order!to!ensure!the!profits!of!those!referred!to!in!a!

best-selling!book!as!“the!Merchants!of!Death.”

!Americans!were!of!the!mind!that!the!Old!World!

always!had!been!and!would!always!be!at!war,!and!that!intervening!in!these!perennial!conflicts!

was!not!in!the!interest!of!the!New!World.

!Those!wanting!to!see!the!U.S.!take!a!more!active!

role!in!world!affairs!in!general!and!in!the!developing!war!in!particular,!then,!had!first!to!argue!

that!this!war!was!somehow!different!from!previous!conflicts,!and!also!that!in!this!case,!

American!intervention!was!in!the!national!interest.!!

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In!November!1935,!for!example,!only!11!percent!of!the!respondents!in!a!Gallup!poll!

thought!the!most!important!issue!facing!the!nation!was!foreign!policy.!The!third!most!

important!priority,!however,!was!“maintaining!neutrality.”

!That!same!year,!Congress,!backed!

by!American!public!opinion,!decided!that!sovereignty!was!more!important!than!any!voluntary!

internationalism,!and!the!Senate!rejected!American!membership!in!the!World!Court..

!That!

decision!was!solidified!within!months!as!Congress!enacted!the!first!of!several!pieces!of!

neutrality!legislation.!The!president’s!hands!were!tied!both!by!widespread!political!preferences!

for!non-intervention!and!by!laws!forbidding!intervention.!!

Meanwhile,!events!in!Europe!increased!the!apparent!necessity!of!intervention.!In!1939,!

the!Germans!took!Austria!and!then!the!Sudentland!and!advanced!into!Czechoslovakia.!German!

forces!then!invaded!Poland,!triggering!French!and!British!treaty!commitments.!Both!nations!

declared!war!on!the!Reich,!beginning!what!Churchill!called!“the!Twilight!War,”!as!troops!

mobilized!and!nations!readied!themselves,!but!no!guns!were!actually!fired.!When!the!shooting!

began,!the!world!stood!stunned!as!the!Nazis!stormed!through!Norway,!Finland,!Denmark,!

Belgium,!the!Netherlands,!and!then!turned!to!France.!Paris!fell!in!a!matter!of!days.!The!

battered!remnants!of!the!British!army!escaped!the!continent!under!heavy!fire!and!largely!

because!of!the!heroism!of!ordinary!British!citizens!who!took!every!available!boat!across!the!

channel!to!rescue!the!troops.!The!Western!European!mainland!had!collapsed!in!the!face!of!

overwhelming!German!might.!Great!Britain!stood!alone!and!imperiled.!

There!were!two!sets!of!arguments!against!American!intervention!on!Britain’s!behalf,!

one!ideological!and!one!pragmatic.!Ideological!arguments!included!the!idea!that!wars!were!

endemic!to!Europe!and!that!this!one!was!no!different.

!They!also!included!strong!

condemnations!of!the!British!Empire—there!was!no!reason,!some!argued,!for!a!democracy!to!

intervene!on!behalf!of!empire.

!And!if!the!British!were!really!in!that!much!trouble,!they!could!

either!turn!to!the!empire!for!help!or!sell!off!pieces!of!it.

!Practical!arguments!comprised!

variations!on!the!theme!that!the!Third!Reich!was!unbeatable,!Europe!was!doomed,!and!that!at!

best!sending!aid!was!a!waste!of!men!and!materiel.!At!worst,!if!the!U.S.!armed!Britain!and!it!

later!fell,!those!arms!would!fuel!the!German!war!effort.

Between!1938!and!1941,!and!with!increasing!urgency,!FDR!argued!against!these!claims,!

depicting!the!British!as!defenders!of!the!democratic!faith!and!Germany!as!an!evil!unique!in!

world!history!and!a!threat!to!Western!civilization.!In!the!process,!he!also!defined!American!aid!

as!essential!for!the!protection!and!defense!of!that!civilization.

!Increasing!German!aggression,!

the!valor!of!those!in!besieged!Britain,!and!the!ways!in!which!both!were!portrayed!through!

newsreels,!on!radio,!and!in!film,!helped!make!the!case!for!ever-increasing!American!action.

In!all!of!this,!the!Japanese!Empire!held!a!very!small!place.!Americans!were!worried!by!

the!formation!of!the!Rome-Berlin!Axis!in!October!1936;!outraged!when!the!Germans!and!

Soviets!signed!a!non-aggression!pact!in!August!1939;

!and!suspicious!when!Germany!violated!

it!and!invaded!the!USSR!in!June!1941.

!The!Tripartite!Act,!a!treaty!between!Germany,!the!

USSR,!and!Japan,!(and!eventually!involving!other!countries,!primarily!in!Eastern!Europe),!was!

signed!in!September!1940.!It!had!little!immediate!effect,!although!it!was!the!reason!that,!

following!the!Japanese!attacks!on!Pearl!Harbor!and!other!American!bases,!Italy!and!Germany!

declared!war!on!the!United!States,!bringing!it!fully!into!both!theaters!of!war.!!

But!until!Pearl!Harbor,!American!attention!was!captured!by!the!European!side!of!the!

equation,!and!the!tensions!between!the!U.S.!and!Japan!escalated!quietly.!Partly,!these!tensions!

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were!a!result!of!competing!ambitions!in!the!Pacific.!The!U.S.!tended!to!regard!it!as!their!ocean,!

and!occupied!more!and!territory,!adding!territories!and!possessions!throughout!the!early!

twentieth!century.

!Japan,!increasingly!militaristic!and!harboring!imperial!ambitions,!resented!

American!incursions!into!Asiatic!waters.!Without!confronting!one!another!directly,!the!two!

nations!jockeyed!for!position!throughout!the!Pacific.!!

Japan!evidenced!an!increasing!commitment!to!isolated!and!militaristic!action,!engaging!

in!wars!with!both!China!(1894-5)!and!Russia!(1904-5).!The!U.S.!objected,!but!did!not!act,!when!

the!Japanese!invaded!Manchuria!in!1931.!Japan!withdrew!from!the!League!of!Nations!in!1933,!

making!clear!their!willingness,!shared!with!the!U.S.,!to!protect!their!right!to!act!unilaterally!as!

national!interest!dictated.!Roosevelt!was!cautious!when!the!Japanese!attacked!the!American!

ship,!6,3,-/!in!1936.!As!the!Japanese!increasingly!searched!for!the!natural!resources!required!

by!industrializing!their!island!nation,!the!U.S.!began!to!respond,!enacting!trade!restrictions!

beginning!in!1938!and!finally!embargoing!oil!and!freezing!Japanese!assets!in!1940.

!It!was!

clear—at!least!to!the!Japanese—that!the!U.S.!intended!to!stymie!both!Japanese!

industrialization!and!its!search!for!more!territory.!The!presence!of!American!bases!on!the!

Philippine!Islands,!their!geographic!proximity!to!Japan,!their!natural!resources,!and!the!

increased!centrality!of!the!Japanese!Imperial!Navy!to!the!nation’s!domestic!politics,!all!made!

those!islands!an!enticing!target.

!American!military!experts!expected!that!if!there!was!to!be!an!

attack,!it!would!arrive!there!first.!They!were!wrong.

On!the!morning!of!December!7,!1941,!some!350!Japanese!war!planes!(fighters,!

bombers,!and!torpedo!planes)!began!their!assault!on!the!American!military!base!at!Pearl!

Harbor,!located!on!the!American!territory!of!Oahu.

!Over!the!next!seven!hours,!the!Japanese!

also!attacked!American!bases!in!Guam,!the!Philippines,!and!Wake!Island,!as!well!as!British!and!

Dutch!installations!in!Malaya,!Hong!Kong,!and!Singapore.!The!result!was!devastating!in!the!

short!term,!as!the!Allies!lost!control!of!important!strategic!ports,!took!large!numbers!of!

casualties,!and!sustained!enormous!damage!to!important!parts!of!the!American!fleet.!

Thousands!of!British,!Dutch,!and!American!soldiers!were!captured!and!incarcerated!under!

brutal!conditions!for!the!remainder!of!the!war.

Such!was!the!shock!generated!by!the!attacks!that!the!president!had!to!both!explain!

them!and!call!for!an!immediate!military!response.!He!met!first,!on!December!7,!1941,!with!

members!of!his!cabinet!and!congressional!leaders,!offering!details!of!the!negotiations!with!

Japan!prior!to!the!attacks!and!of!the!attacks!themselves,!so!far!as!those!details!were!available.!

He!asked!Congress!for!an!invitation!to!speak!the!next!day!without!specifying!the!nature!of!his!

message,

!although!he!also!told!them,!“The!fact!is!that!a!shooting!war!is!going!on!today!in!the!

Pacific.!We!are!in!it.”

!Cabinet!members!and!legislative!leaders!were!thus!primed!to!expect!his!

request!for!a!declaration!of!war.!

Crafting!the!Speech!

The!archives!at!the!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt!Presidential!Library!contain!six!drafts!of!the!

speech:!a!copy!that!indicates!both!the!final!prepared!text!and!the!deviations!FDR!made!from!

that!text;!the!final!reading!copy!of!the!speech,!which!contains!the!final!emendations!made!in!

FDR’s!own!hand;!the!first!draft!of!the!speech!as!Roosevelt!dictated!it!to!secretary!Grace!Tully,!

with!Hopkins’s!penciled!notes!indicating!Hopkins’s!suggestions!and!contributions!with!an!

explanatory!memo!attached;!a!copy!marked!“third!draft”;!and!two!more!copies!of!the!final!

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draft,!one!with!a!memo!from!Press!Secretary!Steve!Early!attached,!cautioning!that!“extreme!

care!must!be!exercised!to!avoid!premature!publication”!of!the!speech!text.

!In!what!follows,!I!

discuss!the!drafting!process,!the!ways!in!which!the!speech,!largely!dictated!in!one!sitting!by!the!

president,!conforms!to!the!genre!of!war!rhetoric,!and!other!notable!aspects!of!the!speech.!!

78%')+,(9#3:'6+"$%&&'

It!was!obvious!from!the!first!that!the!Japanese!attacks!in!the!Pacific!meant!war;!the!

question!was!how!best!to!convey!the!news!to!the!American!public.!Roosevelt!chose!to!offer!a!

condensed!version!of!events,!apparently!favoring!the!greater!impact!of!a!short!speech.!He!also!

refrained!from!making!the!kind!of!detailed,!idealistic!claims!about!the!purpose!of!the!war!that!

had!characterized!Woodrow!Wilson’s!speech!on!the!Great!War.!Such!claims!were!inconsistent!

with!the!prevailing!isolationist!sentiments.

!He!did!make!the!nature!and!the!seriousness!of!the!

attacks!clear,!and!he!did!so!without!attempting!to!minimize!the!extent!of!the!disaster!or!its!

consequences.!Given!that!the!first!draft!was!dictated!in!one!sitting,!it!underwent!remarkably!

few!changes—three!of!them!especially!significant—before!the!final!version!was!delivered.!

The!most!important!alteration!was!changing!the!phrase!“a!date!which!will!live!in!world!

history”!to!“a!date!which!will!live!in!infamy,”!a!phrase!that!appears!in!the!speech’s!first!

sentence!and!set!its!frame—a!dastardly!attack!by!perfidious!villains!on!an!innocent!nation.

This!phrase!previewed!the!entire!argument!of!the!speech:!that!the!U.S,!was!dragged!unwillingly!

to!war,!but!now!that!war!was!upon!them,!the!people!of!the!United!States,!“in!their!righteous!

might,”!would!win!a!“total!victory.”!The!narrative!of!the!speech!was!thus!begun!with!one!

elegant!and!memorable!phrase,!one!of!the!most!famous!lines!of!the!twentieth!century.

!Other!

minor!alterations!under!this!heading!similarly!underlined!the!characterizations!of!Japan!and!the!

U.S.!upon!which!that!narrative!depended.!For!example,!FDR!changed!“simultaneously”!to!

“suddenly,”!underscoring!the!surprise!nature!of!the!assault;!he!separated!Oahu!from!the!

Philippines,!which!made!the!attack!on!an!American!possession!and!the!American!fleet!most!

proximate;!and!he!added!the!depiction!of!Americans!as!both!righteous!and!mighty.!!!

The!second!change!I!want!to!note!is!the!addition!of!the!phrase!“at!the!solicitation!of!

Japan”!to!the!paragraph!noting!that!negotiations!between!the!countries!were!on-going!at!the!

time!of!the!attacks.!This!phrase!indicates!both!that!Japan!had!asked!for!these!negotiations,!

placing!them!in!the!position!of!supplicant,!and!that!they!had!used!this!position!duplicitously.!

Appearing!to!want!peace,!they!planned!war.!Thus,!the!Japanese!were!doubly!untrustworthy—

both!their!appearances!and!their!actions!were!deceitful,!and!further!negotiations!were!

impossible.

!The!only!response!was!war.!!

The!third!critical!change!apparently!followed!a!discussion!of!the!speech!between!

Hopkins!and!the!president.!One!of!Hopkins’s!marginal!notes!follows!the!paragraph,!“I!speak!the!

will!of!the!Congress!and!of!the!people!when!I!assert!that!we!will!not!only!defend!ourselves!to!

the!uttermost!but!will!see!to!it!that!this!form!of!treachery!shall!never!endanger!us!again.”!

Hopkins!penciled!in!the!word,!“Deity,”!which!he!underlined.!By!the!final!draft,!a!short!

paragraph!had!been!added:!“With!confidence!in!our!armed!forces—with!the!unbounding!

determination!of!our!people—we!will!gain!the!inevitable!triumph—so!help!us!God.”!That!

penultimate!paragraph!invoked!the!nation’s!armed!might,!its!commitment!to!unity,!and!its!

dedication!to!Christian!principles,!all!of!which!were!integral!to!FDR’s!rhetoric!during!the!coming!

war!effort.!!

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The!final!speech!lasted!barely!seven!minutes,!was!attended!by!sitting!Members!of!

Congress!as!well!as!members!of!the!U.S.!Supreme!Court,!and!earned!the!largest!radio!audience!

of!any!speech!in!history!to!that!date,!with!over!81!percent!of!American!homes!tuning!in!to!the!

live!broadcast.

!During!those!few!minutes,!Americans!were!educated!about!the!events!and!

meaning!of!“the!day!that!will!live!in!infamy”!through!a!very!particular!lens—that!of!war!

rhetoric.!!!

;,+'<8%9"+#$'

In!their!volume!on!the!genres!of!presidential!rhetoric,!Karlyn!Kohrs!Campbell!and!

Kathleen!Hall!Jamieson!lay!out!the!five!elements!that!constitute!the!genre!of!war!rhetoric.

According!to!them,!all!presidential!calls!for!armed!intervention!follow!a!similar!pattern:!

presidents!argue!that!the!decision!to!go!to!war!is!momentous!and!therefore!not!undertaken!

lightly;!that!decision!is!justified!through!a!narrative!of!the!events!leading!up!to!war!in!which!it!

made!clear!that!all!avenues!short!of!war!have!been!tried;!the!president!insists!on!national!unity!

and!commitment!from!the!audience;!in!doing!so,!he!justifies!and!assumes!the!powers!of!

Commander-in-Chief.!Finally,!they!argue!that!these!various!narratives!and!justifications!convey!

only!one!side!of!a!complex!situation,!and!that!therefore!they!tend!to!rely!heavily!upon!

“strategic!misrepresentation”!of!the!available!facts.!Presidents!do!not,!in!other!words,!call!for!

war!by!explaining!the!enemy’s!reasons!but!only!those!motivating!and!exculpating!their!own!

nation.!!!

As!in!all!war!addresses,!this!one!had!two!main!tasks:!to!justify!the!war!and!to!rally!the!

American!people.!Because!of!the!nature!of!the!attacks,!the!justification!was!simple;!war!was!a!

foregone!conclusion.!FDR!took!the!opportunity!to!characterize!the!events!of!December!7—he!

noted!that!the!nation!was!“suddenly!and!deliberately!attacked,”!and!that!the!distance!between!

Japan!and!Pearl!Harbor!meant!that!the!attack!“was!deliberately!planned.”!He!called!it!“a!

surprise!offensive,”!and!a!“premeditated!invasion,”!and!referred!to!the!“character!of!the!

onslaught!against!us.”!These!characterizations!justified!the!American!response.!Roosevelt!

argued!it!was!not!merely!that!the!nation!had!been!attacked,!but!also!that!this!attack!was!of!a!

particularly!nefarious!nature.!By!implication,!the!nation!had!no!choice!but!to!go!to!war.!!!

The!second!task!was!also!relatively!simple.!Because!the!nation!had!been!attacked,!

national!unity!was!quickly!forthcoming—even!the!most!adamant!anti-interventionists,!for!

example,!had!argued!that!war!was!to!be!avoided!only!when!the!nation!was!not!directly!

threatened.!Nearly!all!of!them!immediately!joined!the!war!effort.

!Still,!Roosevelt!made!the!

attacks!proximate—the!assault!had!not!occurred!on!remote!islands!in!the!far!away!Pacific,!but!

“the!United!States!of!America”!itself!was!the!victim.!This!claim!was!potentially!tricky!and!

required!a!deft!use!of!language—the!places!in!question!were!not!part!of!the!contiguous!United!

States,!nor!were!they!states,!but!were!remote!American!bases,!territories,!and!possessions.!

Given!that!FDR!spent!considerable!time!arguing!for!the!moral!superiority!of!democracy!over!

other!forms!of!government,!including!imperialism,!the!fact!that!the!government!honored!this!

distinction!more!in!theory!than!in!practice!was!potentially!embarrassing.!But!here,!as!Campbell!

and!Jamieson!suggest!is!normally!the!case,!the!narrative!explaining!events!leading!to!war!

tended!to!be!self-serving.!Roosevelt!referred!to!“the!American!island!of!Oahu,”!and!stressed!

the!damage!done!to!“American!naval!and!military!forces.”!Further,!he!noted!“American!ships!

have!been!reported!torpedoed!on!the!high!seas!between!San!Francisco!and!Honolulu,”!making!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 7!

the!potential!for!an!attack!on!the!mainland!frighteningly!possible.!He!made!potentially!distant!

events!seem!proximate.

That!proximity!also!reinforced!the!call!for!national!unity!and!commitment.!FDR!not!only!

explicitly!claimed!the!powers!of!Commander-in-Chief,!but!combined!those!powers!with!the!

interpretive!ability!of!the!chief!executive—he!called!for!military!mobilization!in!one!capacity,!

and!spoke!for!“the!will!of!the!Congress!and!the!American!people”!in!the!other.!But!he!was!not!

assuming!unlimited!or!dictatorial!power.!He!stated!that!“The!facts!of!yesterday!and!today!speak!

for!themselves.!The!people!of!the!United!States!have!already!formed!their!opinions!and!

understand!the!implications!to!the!very!life!and!safety!of!our!nation.”!That!is,!he!argued!that!he!

was!not!engaged!in!an!act!of!persuasion,!but!only!of!enunciation—the!facts!spoke,!the!people!

had!already!decided.!He!had!agency!primarily!as!in!interpreter!of!the!people’s!will.!Even!in!

wartime,!the!foundational!principles!of!democracy,!as!he!understood!them,!would!be!

preserved.!This!element!was!particularly!important,!as!FDR!consistently!defined!the!war!as!one!

of!the!forces!of!democracy!against!dictatorship.

Because!the!prosecution!of!the!war!depended!on!the!will!of!the!Congress!and!the!

American!people,!and!because!it!was!primarily!dedicated!to!the!preservation!of!democracy!

itself,!Roosevelt!asserted!that!the!nation!was!both!united!and!committed!to!the!tasks!ahead:!

“No!matter!how!long!it!may!take!us!to!overcome!this!premeditated!invasion,!the!American!

people!in!their!righteous!might!will!win!through!to!absolute!victory.”!Note!here!that!Roosevelt!

defined!the!sides!of!this!war!in!very!different!terms.!The!Japanese,!unsurprisingly,!were!

characterized,!as!we!have!seen,!as!perfidious,!duplicitous,!and!malignant,!while!the!Americans,!

lawfully!pursuing!their!interests!and!engaged!in!open!and!honest!negotiations,!were!full!of!

“righteous!might.”!Equally!important,!however,!is!that!on!the!one!side!there!stood!the!“Empire!

of!Japan,”!“the!Japanese!Government,”!“Japanese!forces,”!and!only!secondarily,!“the!

Japanese.”!They!were!depicted!as!an!empire,!a!nation,!a!military,!and!only!then!as!a!people.!

Americans,!on!the!other!hand,!were!a!nation!under!attack;!the!object!of!Japanese!duplicity!

(“the!Japanese!Government!deliberately!sought!to!deceive!the!United!States”);!and!a!united!

people.!The!attack!on!American!bases!was!conflated!with!an!attack!on!the!entire!nation.!The!

American!people!were!consubstantial!with!its!government,!its!military,!and!its!territory.!An!

attack!on!any!one!of!these!things!was!defined!as!an!attack!on!all!of!them.!Such!an!attack!must!

be!answered!by!a!call!to!unified!arms.!!

This!speech,!then,!brief!as!it!is,!contains!all!of!the!generic!requirements!of!a!war!

address:!Roosevelt!makes!the!momentous!nature!of!the!occasion!clear;!the!decision!to!go!to!

war!is!presented!as!unwilling;!it!is!enacted!through!a!dependence!on!democratic!consensus;!the!

audience!is!exhorted!to!maintain!the!unity!that!is!presented!as!already!operative;!the!president!

assumed!both!the!power!of!Commander-in-Chief!and!put!that!power!in!the!service!of!

democratic!ends;!and!there!is!a!reliance!on!a!one-sided!narrative!of!the!events!and!causes!of!

the!war.!This!speech!didn’t!stand!alone,!however,!but!was!part!of!a!long-standing!series!of!

arguments!FDR!had!been!making!about!the!developing!world!war,!and!it’s!also!important!to!

understand!it!in!that!context.!!!!!!

78%'<",='9"';,+''

Speeches!like!this!one!rely!on!genre!but!also!reveal!a!great!deal!about!the!public!

character!and!preferences!of!the!speaker.!There!are!many!ways!that!generic!expectations!can!

be!fulfilled!(or!not).!A!speech!like!this!one,!given!with!little!time!for!revision,!and,!in!this!case,!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 8!

presented!largely!as!it!was!originally!dictated!by!the!president,!can!tell!us!a!great!deal!about!

how!that!president!understands!the!task!before!him!and!the!institution!he!occupies.

!In!this!

section,!then,!I!focus!on!some!of!the!elements!that!bring!these!aspects!of!the!speech!to!the!

fore.!In!at!least!three!ways,!Roosevelt’s!language!in!this!speech!echoed!and!depended!upon!

arguments!he!had!long!been!making!and!brought!many!of!the!pieces!of!what!would!be!his!

overall!arguments!about!the!nature!of!the!war!into!sharp!relief.!!

>8,+,$9%+#5,9#"3'

As!we!have!seen,!in!the!Pearl!Harbor!address,!Roosevelt!characterized!the!Japanese!as!

duplicitous!and!deceitful.!Subordinate!to!the!will!of!their!emperor!and!his!military,!the!Japanese!

people!were!the!opposite!of!the!idealized!democratic!character.!He!could!accomplish!this!

characterization!in!an!abbreviated!and!efficient!way!for!two!reasons:!first,!the!Japanese!military!

had!perpetrated!a!surprise!assault!on!the!U.S.!and!other!nations.!Second,!though,!Roosevelt!

had!long!been!engaging!in!exactly!this!kind!of!definition,!as!he!prepared!the!nation!for!war!with!

the!Axis.!!

On!July!7,!1937,!Japan!invaded!China.!The!American!government!had!limited!options.!

Ideally,!the!U.S.!wanted!to!have!a!way!to!respond!to!aggression!without!risking!neutrality!but!

had!no!coherent!plan!or!how!to!manage!this.

!The!closest!FDR!came!to!a!clear!policy!was!to!

refuse!to!recognize!the!acquisition!of!territory!gained!by!“aggression.”!But!non-recognition!

mattered!little!to!the!Japanese,!and!without!direct!military!aid,!the!Chinese!had!few!resources!

with!which!to!fend!off!the!invasion.!!

Searching!for!both!an!effective!policy!and!a!way!of!communicating!it,!on!October!5,!

1937,!Roosevelt!delivered!what!has!become!known!as!the!“Quarantine!Speech.”!Aimed!

primarily!at!Japan!but!with!applications!to!the!Fascist!powers,!Roosevelt!offered!a!narrative!of!

aggression!in!Europe!and!Asia,!railing!against!“Nations!claiming!freedom!for!themselves![but!

who]!deny!it!to!others.”

!He!spoke!in!broad!generalities,!but!did!some!important!rhetorical!

work,!for!he!identified!the!Japanese!with!Germany!and!Italy,!connecting!all!three!nations!in!one!

ideological!whole.!That!identification!was!based!on!two!things:!their!aggressive!behavior!and!

the!threat!they!posed!to!peaceful!nations.!Roosevelt!noted,!for!instance,!that,!“It!began!

through!unjustified!interference!in!the!internal!affairs!of!other!nations!or!the!invasion!of!alien!

territory!in!violation!of!treaties!.!.!.!.!innocent!people,!innocent!nations,!are!being!cruelly!

sacrificed!to!a!greed!for!power!and!supremacy!which!is!devoid!of!all!sense!of!justice!and!

humane!considerations.”

!This!description!could!as!easily!apply!to!Italy’s!invasion!of!Ethiopia!

or!Franco’s!actions!in!Spain!as!to!the!Japanese!incursion!into!China.!Moreover,!the!threat!was!

not!confined!to!Asiatic!nations!but!encompassed!the!world:!“If!these!things!come!to!pass!in!

other!parts!of!the!world,”!Roosevelt!warned!his!audience,!“let!no!one!imagine!that!America!will!

escape,!that!America!may!expect!mercy,!that!this!Western!Hemisphere!will!not!be!attacked!and!

that!it!will!continue!tranquilly!and!peacefully!to!carry!on!the!ethics!and!the!arts!of!

civilization.”

!For!Roosevelt,!aggressive!actions!in!any!part!of!the!world!threatened!the!peace!

of!the!entire!world,!an!argument!that!seems!inconsistent!with!the!caution!he!was!showing!

throughout!1937.!!

!Reaction!to!the!speech!was!negative!in!the!extreme!and!has!been!described!as!“an!

attitude!without!a!program.”

!He!was!accused!of!war-mongering,!threatened!with!

impeachment,!and!both!congressional!and!public!opinion!were!strongly!against!action!in!Asia.

In!fact,!polling!indicated!that!Americans!wanted!stronger!neutrality!laws.

!At!least!one!scholar!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 9!

of!public!opinion!argues!that!the!mass!public!was!persuadable!on!the!issue,!but!that!Roosevelt!

chose!to!focus!on!the!negative!opinions!rather!than!the!potential!for!creating!a!public!mood!

more!amenable!to!his!preferred!policies.

!The!speech!stands!as!Roosevelt’s!first!real!attempt!

to!set!the!terms!of!debate!about!the!burgeoning!war.!The!idea!of!“quarantining!the!

aggressors,”!meant!little!in!terms!of!actual!concerted!international!action!and!the!president’s!

refusal!to!follow!it!up!with!any!actual!policy!proposals!did!even!less.!But!whether!Roosevelt!

acted!intentionally!or!not,!the!speech!provided!him!with!some!important!resources.!It!allowed!

him!to!continue!to!capitalize!on!the!implied!connection!between!Japan!and!the!Fascist!powers!

(the!Tripartite!Pact!formally!creating!the!alliance!was!not!signed!until!three!years!later),!thus!

enabling!his!arguments!that!it!was!a!single!war!between!the!forces!of!freedom!and!those!

opposing!human!freedom!and!establishing!the!frame!for!the!entire!war.!It!also!allowed!him!to!

plausibly!make!the!case!that!the!Axis!nations!posed!a!global!threat!that!endangered!American!

financial!and!ideological!interests!around!the!world.!Much!of!FDR’s!war!rhetoric!hinged!on!the!

comprehensive!nature!and!ideological!unity!of!the!threat!to!the!United!States;!despite!the!

problems!with!this!speech,!it!was!an!important!in!the!foundation!for!that!rhetoric,!which!

continued!to!develop!until!the!U.S.!officially!entered!the!war.!

?#:8'19,@%&'

In!many!ways,!this!speech!echoes!the!arguments!he!had!been!making!for!years!

concerning!the!danger!dictatorship!and!militarism!posed!to!advocates!of!democracy.!Those!

arguments!became!increasingly!pointed!as!that!danger!became!more!evident.!Roosevelt!called!

the!German!incursion!into!what!was!then!Czechoslovakia!“wanton!lawlessness”!and!referred!to!

the!German!use!of!“arbitrary!force.”

!He!also!made!a!point!of!connecting!the!military!threat!

posed!by!the!Reich!to!an!economic!threat.!As!the!United!States!continued!to!suffer!

economically!throughout!the!1930s,!FDR!was!careful!to!connect!prosperity,!values,!and!self-

interest!to!the!militarism!he!associated!with!the!Axis:!“This!is!what!you!might!call!the!second!

phase!of!military!aggression,”!he!told!the!press!in!April!1939,!the!day!after!Italy’s!invasion!of!

Albania.!“One!of!the!results!of!successful!military!aggression!by!any!Nation!or!group!of!nations!

is!the!control!of!commerce,!not!only!within!their!own!territory!by!in!other!territories—other!

independent!nations—which!they!can!threaten!because!of!their!military!power.”

!Thus,!by!

1939!FDR!had!established!the!argumentative!pattern!that!would!carry!the!burden!of!his!

rationale!for!American!action.!According!to!Roosevelt,!the!autocracies!of!Europe!and!Asia!

posed!a!triple!threat!to!western!civilization!and!world!peace:!militarily,!they!threatened!

invasion!and!occupation;!ideologically,!they!threatened!freedom,!liberty,!and!human!rights;!

economically,!they!threatened!to!control!trade!and!limit!national!prosperity.!Roosevelt!added!

element!after!element—first!the!threat!had!been!ideological,!then!military,!and!now!was!also!

understood!as!economic.!International!events!as!Roosevelt!depicted!them!became!ever!more!

ominous,!American!stakes!in!the!outcome!ever!higher.!That!threat!eventually!amounted!to!a!

danger!to!Western!civilization!broadly!understood.!!

Roosevelt’s!1941!Annual!Message,!for!example,!is!one!of!his!best,

!and!presents!an!

eloquent!defense!of!“the!democratic!way!of!life.”

!He!argued!against!appeasement!and!for!

preparedness,!and!declared!that!the!nation!was!“now!part!of!the!great!emergency.”!In!that!

speech,!he!defined!the!critical!elements!of!democracy,!which!he!distilled!into!“four!essential!

human!freedoms.”

!Those!freedoms!(freedom!of!speech!and!expression,!freedom!of!religion,!

freedom!from!want,!and!freedom!from!fear)!were!powerful!expressions!of!American!ideals!as!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 10!

seen!through!the!lens!of!the!New!Deal.!Through!them!Roosevelt!justified!his!past!policies,!

defined!the!purpose!of!the!war,!and!provided!a!basis!for!his!vision!of!the!post!war!world.!!

Because!the!frame!was!set!prior!to!the!assault!on!Pearl!Harbor,!FDR!depended!on!a!

widespread!recognition!of!that!frame!in!his!war!address.!Japan!was!already!understood!as!a!

member!of!a!nefarious!alliance;!its!actions!were!easily!understood!as!iniquitous.!But!Roosevelt!

did!not!depend!on!that!frame!alone.!In!one!of!the!most!powerful!sections!of!this!powerful!

speech,!and!after!noting!the!attacks!on!Oahu!and!in!the!waters!between!Hawaii!and!the!West!

Coast,!FDR!lists!the!specific!places!targeted!by!the!Japanese:!!

Yesterday,!the!Japanese!Government!also!launched!an!attack!against!Malaya.!

Last!night!Japanese!forces!attacked!Hong!Kong.!

Last!night!Japanese!forces!attacked!Guam.!

Last!night!Japanese!forces!attacked!the!Philippine!Islands.!

Last!night!the!Japanese!attacked!Wake!Island.!

And!this!morning!the!Japanese!attacked!Midway!Island.!

Note!the!amplification!here.!Roosevelt!could!have!proffered!something!like,!“In!the!last!

two!days,!the!Japanese!attacked!several!American!and!British!bases!throughout!the!Pacific.”!

That!sentence!is!every!bit!as!accurate!as!the!list!Roosevelt!provided.!But!it!lacks!the!drama!and!

import!of!Roosevelt’s.!Americans,!unsure!of!the!exact!facts,!and!listening!to!the!president!over!

radio,!heard!the!list,!delivered!slowly!and!dramatically,!building!and!building!to!the!conclusion!

that,!“Japan!has,!therefore,!undertaken!a!surprise!offensive!extending!throughout!the!Pacific!

area.”!The!magnitude!of!the!disaster!was!clear.!The!response!had!to!be!one!of!equal!

magnitude.!

While!Roosevelt!separated!the!various!attacks!to!amplify!their!import,!he!also!conflated!

Dutch,!British,!and!American!territories!and!troops.!The!attacks!were!separated;!the!allies!were!

joined.!What!began!as!a!discussion!of!an!attack!on!the!“American!Island!of!Oahu,”!became!a!

enactment!of!the!allied!war!effort.!The!threat!was!real,!the!stakes!could!not!be!higher,!for!they!

encompassed!both!our!national!interests!and!our!international!allies.!!

A#3,B'CD9$"*%'

With!the!enemy!defined!as!a!threat!to!Western!civilization!and!the!stakes!of!the!conflict!

tied!to!the!fate!of!that!civilization,!there!was!no!choice!but!“absolute!victory.”!If!the!enemy!is!

defined!as!the!incarnation!of!evil,!halfway!measures!cannot!be!taken!against!that!enemy.

!The!

United!States!and!its!allies!were!defined!as!the!Christian!defenders!of!civilization!writ!large;!the!

Axis!became!not!another!option!available!to!civilized!nations,!but!the!antithesis!of!civilization!

itself.!This,!of!course,!obscured!many!of!the!more!complicated!elements!of!the!Allied!war!

effort,!including!its!racism!and!imperialism.

!But!it!did!powerfully!set!the!frame!for!how!that!

war!effort!would!be!understood,!at!least!by!the!dominant!members!of!the!Allied!coalition.

According!to!Roosevelt,!the!day!of!the!attacks,!“a!date!which!will!live!in!infamy,”!not!

only!had!to!be!avenged,!but!had!to!be!avenged!in!such!a!way!that!a!new!world!order!could!be!

established.!The!defeat!of!the!Axis!would!mean!that!diplomacy!could!once!again!be!trusted,!

that!those!involved!in!negotiations!would!not!engage!in!duplicitous!assaults;!that!“absolute!

victory”!would!be!achieved!over!those!opposed!to!democracy—that!the!U.S.!would!“not!only!

defend!ourselves!to!the!uttermost!but!will!make!it!very!certain!that!this!form!of!treachery!shall!

never!again!endanger!us.”!The!president!declared!that!“hostilities!exist,”!and!laid!out!the!

requirements!for!the!eventual!end!of!those!hostilities.!The!nation’s!homeland!not!only!had!to!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 11!

be!protected,!but!had!to!protected!in!perpetuity—treachery!would!“never!again”!endanger!the!

nation.!!

This!declaration!was!consistent!with!the!universals!upon!which!Roosevelt!grounded!the!

war!effort—it!was,!for!him,!a!battle!of!the!forces!of!good!against!the!forces!of!evil—and!half!

measures!were!therefore!not!sufficient.!Evil!had!to!be!completely!vanquished!so!that!good!

could!triumph.!This!formulation!is!also!consistent!with!the!requirements!of!war!rhetoric—in!

declaring!war,!presidents!eschew!complexities!for!a!straightforward!and!uncomplicated!view!of!

the!situation.!Complexities!are!the!stuff!of!diplomacy;!war!does!not!admit!nuanced!views!of!

reality.!In!this!case,!the!“absolute!victory,”!Roosevelt!required!here!became!a!call!for!“total!

surrender,”!later!in!the!war.

!Consequently,!the!Allied!victory!structured!expectations!for!the!

world!that!emerged!from!the!bloodiest!war!in!human!history.!!

The!Nation’s!Last!Declaration!of!War:!The!U.S.!and!the!World!

This!speech!encapsulates!the!frames!and!themes!Roosevelt!set!for!the!national!

understanding!of!what!became!the!Second!World!War:!he!depicted!the!U.S.!and!its!allies!as!

innocent!victims!of!militaristic!and!imperial!aggression;!he!identified!the!U.S.!and!its!allies!with!

Christianity!and!with!the!noblest!aspects!of!Western!civilization;!he!defined!the!war!as!one!of!

ideological!disputation!as!much!as!one!of!territorial!acquisition;!and!he!outlined!the!ends!of!the!

war!as!the!protection!of!democracy!from!the!forces!that!opposed!human!freedom.!!

Throughout!our!national!history,!American!presidents!have!argued!for!the!connection!

between!American!actions!and!the!will!of!God.!The!U.S.!has!tended!to!see!in!its!actions!the!

manifestation!of!that!will.!Roosevelt!articulated!this!connection!from!as!early!as!1937,!and!

continued!to!do!so!until!his!death!in!April!1945.!In!his!formulation!of!the!war,!there!was!little!

complexity,!little!room!for!the!idea!that!the!U.S.!itself!had!a!troubled!history.!In!Roosevelt’s!

rhetoric,!the!U.S.!became!the!beacon!of!democracy,!tasked!with!illuminating!the!world.!!

The!world!following!the!armistice!in!1945!was!in!dire!need!of!illumination.!Europe!lay!in!

ruins;!Japan,!having!suffered!the!firebombing!of!Tokyo!and!the!atomic!conflagrations!of!

Hiroshima!and!Nagasaki,!was!devastated.!The!old!order!had!been!decisively!overthrown:!

colonial!powers!were!on!the!wane,!the!international!dominance!of!the!British!Empire!was!

ended,!and!a!new!order!was!emerging.!That!order,!Manichean!in!outlook,!revolved!around!the!

ideological!contest!between!the!U.S.!and!the!Soviet!Union.!No!longer!would!nations!fight!over!

territory!and!justify!it!through!mere!national!interest.!Now!the!contest!was!defined!in!explicitly!

ideological!terms!and!there!would!be!little!room!for!compromise.

Among!the!combatants,!the!United!States!alone!emerged!from!the!war!with!its!

homeland!and!its!economy!intact.!The!world’s!only!atomic!power,!it!also!emerged!from!the!war!

with!an!unparalleled!ability!to!dominate!the!emerging!order.!Dominate!it!did,!forging!

democratic!forms!onto!the!government!of!Japan,!rebuilding!European!economies!through!the!

Marshall!Plan,!and!constructing!a!democratic!consensus!through!Western!alliances.!Those!

alliances!increasingly!faced!the!ideological!and!military!resistance!in!Eastern!Europe!under!

Soviet!control,!and!the!Cold!War!was!born.!During!that!decades-long!series!of!confrontations,!

the!United!States!and!its!presidents!comfortably!assumed!the!mantle!of!“leader!of!the!free!

world,”!a!mantle!that!had!enormous!impact!both!globally!and!at!home.

!Head!of!an!

international!coalition,!the!U.S.!did!not!hesitate!to!act!alone.!!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 12!

The!end!of!the!Cold!War!did!not!decrease!American!responsibilities,!but!it!has!brought!

with!it!an!end!to!the!comfort!with!which!those!responsibilities!have!been!assumed!and!has!

made!unilateral!action!difficult!and!troubling.

!Roosevelt’s!rhetoric!leading!up!to!and!during!

World!War!II!gave!us!an!unequivocally!barbaric!set!of!enemies!and!arrayed!the!allied!forces!of!

good!against!the!militarized!forces!of!evil.!This!was!and!is!a!profoundly!satisfying!view!of!the!

war,!but!it!is!one!that!ill-prepares!us!for!the!complexities!of!the!world!in!the!aftermath!of!that!

war.!!

It!is!no!surprise!then,!that!Pearl!Harbor!became!associated!with!the!attacks!that!shocked!

the!nation!on!September!11,!2001.

!Those!attacks!demonstrated!that!the!American!homeland!

was!vulnerable!to!surprise!attacks,!but!this!time,!the!enemy!was!more!elusive,!less!attached!to!

a!specific!nation-state,!and!this!time,!the!president!declared!a!state!of!hostilities!not!on!a!

nation,!but!on!a!set!of!practices,!it!was!a!“War!on!Terror.”!The!complexities!of!the!

contemporary!world!had!shaken!free!of!the!post-World!War!II!order,!and!it!was!unclear!then,!

as!it!unclear!now,!how!the!United!States!and!its!allies!should!best!respond.!“Absolute!victory”!is!

not!a!reasonable!goal!under!these!circumstances,!and!the!nature!of!America’s!global!alliances!

and!its!role!in!those!alliances,!is!uncertain!at!best.!!

Roosevelt!had!a!certainty!in!the!face!of!the!assault!on!Pearl!Harbor,!expressed!in!his!

speech!on!December!8,!1941,!and!throughout!the!war!that!followed.!He!was!never!sanguine—

he!did!not!hesitate!to!tell!Americans!bad!news,!and!the!war!news,!especially!in!its!first!years,!

was!often!bad.!But!he!also!never!hesitated!to!assure!Americans!that!absolute!victory!was!

achievable.!He!called!for!dedication!and!demanded!sacrifice.!Those!elements!too!are!missing!

from!contemporary!discussions!of!war.!The!shadow!of!Pearl!Harbor!lingers!over!our!national!

understanding!of!9/11!and!the!years!of!armed!conflict!that!followed,!but!it!is!a!poor!parallel!as!

a!guide!to!understanding!national!action.!!

Author’s!Note:!!Mary!E.!Stuckey!is!Professor!of!Communication!Arts!and!Sciences!at!the!

Pennsylvania!State!University.!She’d!like!to!thank!Michael!Hogan!and!Shawn!J.!Parry-Giles!for!

the!opportunity!to!write!this!essay,!and!Stephen!Heidt!for!his!help!in!writing!it.!!

Notes!

!For!a!discussion!of!Japanese!intentions,!see,!among!many!others,!Herbert!Feis,!<",='9"'6%,+B'?,+E"+F'78%'>"*#3:'

"('98%';,+'E%9G%%3'98%'03#9%='19,9%&',3='H,I,3!(Princeton!University!Press,!201 5).!

!Details!on!the!011'4+#5"3,'and!the!sites!associated!with!Pearl!Harbor!are!available!at:!

http://www.pearlharborhistoricsites.org/!

!See!for!example,!the!comparison!to!Wilson!in!Arthur!M.!Schlesinger,!78%'>+#&#&'"('98%'CB='C+=%+F'JKJKLJKMM/'78%'

4:%'"('<""&%N%B9!(New!York:!H o ugh to n!Mifflin!Harcourt,!200 3),!8.!

!For!further!discussion!of!this!argument,!see!Mary!E.!Stuckey,!78%'.""='O%#:8E"+F'A+,3@B#3')P'<""&%N%B9',3='98%'

<8%9"+#$'"('4*%+#$,3'6"G%+!(East!Lansing,!Michigan!S tate!U n iversity !Press ,!2013 ).!

!For!various!views!on!the!D ep ressio n,!see!Jo na th an !Alter,!78%')%(#3#3:'Q"*%39F'A)<R&'?D3=+%='),-&',3='98%'

7+#D*I8'"('?"I%!(New!York:!Simo n!a nd !Sch u ster,!20 06 );!Ro na ld!E dsfo rth ,!78%'O%G')%,BF'4*%+#$,R&'<%&I"3&%'9"'98%'

.+%,9')%I+%&&#"3!(Malden,!MA:!Blackw ell,!200 0);!Ro b e rt !S .!McElvaine ,!78%'.+%,9')%I+%&&#"3F'4*%+#$,/'JKSKLJKTJ'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 13!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

(New!York:!Th ree!R ivers!P ress,!20 09 ![198 9]);!Jim !Po w ell,!A)<R&'A"BB-F'?"G'<""&%N%B9',3='8#&'O%G')%,B'6+"B"3:%='

98%'.+%,9')%I+%&&#" 3!(New!York:!Thre e!Riv ers!Pre ss,!20 03 );!Am ity!S hla es,!78%'A"+:"99%3'Q,3F'4'O%G'?#&9"+-'"('98%'

.+%,9')%I+%&&#"3!(New!York:!Harper,!2007).!

!On!Roosevelt!and!the!anti-interventionists ,!see !Wayne!S.!C o le,!<""&%N%B9',3='98%'U&"B,9#"3#&9&/'JKMSLJKTV'

(Lincoln:!University !of!N eb rask a!Pre ss,!19 83 ),!113 ;!W illiam !E.!Kin sella,!Jr.,!W%,=%+&8#I'#3'U&"B,9#"3F'A)<',3='98%'

C+#:#3&'"('98%'1%$"3=';"+B=';,+!(Cambridge,!MA :!Sch en km a n,!19 78 ),!1-2.!

!For!a!detailed!discussion!of!the!“Great!Debate,”!see!Mary!Stuckey,!“The!“Great!Debate”:!The!Battle!over!American!

Neutrality,!1936-1941,”!ed.!Martin!J.!Medhurst,!4'<8%9"+#$,B'?#&9"+-'"('98%'03#9%='19,9%&/'!"BD*%'XF';"+B=';,+'UU',3='

98%'>"B=';,r!(Ea st!Lan sin g,!M ichig an !State !Un iversity!P ress,!forth co m ing ).!This!d iscu ssion !is!bas ed !on!th at!ess ay.!

!Woodrow!Wilson,!"Address!to!a!Joint!Session!of!Congress!Requesting!a!Declaration!of!War!Against!Germany,"!

April!2,!1917.!Online!by!Gerhard!Peters!and!John!T.!Woolley,!78%'4*%+#$,3'6+%&#=%3$-'6+"Y%$9.!

http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=65366.!

!!H.C.!Engelbrecht!and!F.C.!Hanighen,!78%'Q%+$8,39&'"(')%,98F'4'19D=-'"('98%'U39%+3,9#"3,B'4+*,*%39'U3=D&9+-'

(New!York:!Do d d,!M ea d ,!and !Co m p an y,!19 34 ).!A!co m p lete!v ersio n!is!av ailab le!o n!line :!

http://greatwar.nl/frames/default-merchants.html.!

!Justus!D.!Do en ec ke ,!“American!Isolation ism ,!19 39-1941,”!H"D+3,B'"('W#E%+9,+#,3'1 9D= #%&,!1 9 8 2 ( S u mmer/Fa ll) :!

201-216;!Donald!Drummond,!78%'6,&&#3:'"('4*%+#$,3'O%D9+,B#9-/'JKMZLJKTJ'(New!York:!Greenw o o d,!19 68 ),!42.!

!Ralph!B.!Levering,!78%'6DEB#$',3='4*%+#$,3'A"+%#:3'6"B#$-/'JKMXLJKZX!(New!York:!William!M o rrow !an d!C ompany,!

1978)/!55.!

!!For!a!discussion!of!the!decision!against!participation!in!the!World!Court,!see!R.!D.!Accinelli,!“Peace!Through!Law:!

The!United!States!and!the!World!Court,!1923-1935,”!78%'>,3,=#,3'?#&9"+#$,B'4&&"$#,9#"3'6,I%+&'JKZS'(Montreal:!

McGill!University!Press,!1972),!247-262.!

!For!an!example!of!the!argument!that!this!was!just!another!European!war,!grounded!in!economic!conflict,!see!

Martin!Maas,!?%,+#3:&'"3'4*%+#$,3'O%D9+,B#9-'6"B#$-/'1%N%39-L1#[98'>"3:+%&&/'A#+&9'1%&&#"3!(Washington!DC :!U .!S .!

Government!Printing!Office,!1939),!19.!

!For!examples!of!condemnations!of!the!British!Empire,!see!Mrs.!Rogers,!?%,+#3:&'\%("+%'98%'>"**#99%%'"3'

A"+%#:3'4((,#+&/'?"D&%'"('<%I+%&%39,9#N%&/'1%N%39-L1%N%398'>"3:+%&&/'A#+&9'1%&&#"3/'"3'?<'JZZ]'(Washington,!DC:!

U.S.!Government!Printing!Office,!1941),!126;!Senator!Reynolds,!>"**#99%%'"('A"+%#:3'<%B,9#"3&/'03#9%='19,9%&'

1%3,9%/'1%N%39-L1#[98'>"3:+%&&/'A#+&9'1%&&#"3/'?%,+#3:&'"3'O%D9+,B#9-/'6%,$%'W%:#&B,9#"3/',3='CD+'A"+%#:3'6"B#$-'

(Washingto n,!D C:!U .S.!Go vern m e nt!Prin ting !Office ,!1939 ),!26.!

!For!an!example!of!the!argument!that!the!U.S.!should!not!spend!its!resources!helping!Britain,!see!William!E.!

Borah,!“Retain!the!Arms!Embargo,”!September!14,!1939,!!#9,B'1I%%$8%&'"('98%'),-!5(24):!741-743,!741.!

!Charles!Lindbergh!was!probably!the!most!famous!proponent!of!this!view.!See!Wayne!S.!Cole,!4*%+#$,'A#+&9F'78%'

\,99B%'4:,#3&9'U39%+N%39#"3/'JKT^LJKTJ'(Madison:!University!of!W isco ns in!Pre ss,!19 53 ),!78-85.!!

!See,!for!example,!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Address!at!Chicago,”!October!5,!1937,!406-411,!in!78%'6DEB#$'6,I%+&'

,3='4==+%&&%&'"('A+,3@B#3')P'<""&%N%B9,!ed.!Samuel!I.!R o s e n man!(New!York:!Ra n d o m!House ,!1 9 3 9 ) ,!4 0 8 .!S e e !a lso !

Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Annual!Message!to!Congress,”!January!4,!1939,!1-12,!6DEB#$'6,I%+&,!2.!Rosenman!edited!13!

volumes!of!papers!and!addresses;!the!first!6!were!published!in!1939!by!Random!House,!the!others!by!MacMillan!in!

1950.!All!volumes!are!abbreviated!below!as!6DEB#$'6,I%+&.!Most!of!the!speeche s!a re!a lso !av aila ble !at !the !A m e rica n!

Presidency!Project’s!web!site!(http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/).!

!Newsmen!like!Edward!R.!Murrow!were!notably!important.!See!Lynne!Olson,!>#9#5%3&'"('W"3="3F'78%'4*%+#$,3&'

G8"'19""='G#98'\+#9,#3'#3'#9&'),+@%&9/'A#3%&9'?"D+!(New!York:!Ran d om!House,!2010 ),!31,!49 .!M o vies!like!C ha rlie!

Chaplin’s!78%'.+%,9')#$9,9"+!were!influential!as!well.!See!Peter!Roffman!and!Jim!Purdy,!78%'?"BB-G""='1"$#,B'

6+"EB%*'A#B*F'Q,=3%&&/')%&I,#+/',3='6"B#9#$&'(+"*')%I+%&&#"3'9"'98%'A#(9#%&!(Bloomington:!Indiana !Un ivers ity!Press ,!

1981),!215.!!

!For!a!discussion!of!American!public!opinion!and!the!war,!see!Les!K.!Adler!and!Thomas!G.!Paterson,!"Red!fascism:!

The!merger!of!Nazi!Germany!and!Soviet!Russia!in!the!American!image!of!totalitarianism,!1930's-1950's."!78%'

4*%+#$,3'?#&9"+#$,B'<%N#%G!75,!no.!4!(1970):!1046-1064.!

!For!more!on!Operation!Barbarossa,!see!David!Stahel,!CI%+,9#"3'\,+E,+"&&,',3='.%+*,3-_&')%(%,9'#3'98%'`,&9!

(New!York:!Ca m b ridge !Un ivers ity!Pres s,!200 9).!

!On!American!ambitions!in!the!Pacific,!see!Michael!Adas,!"From!Settler!Colony!to!Global!Hegemon:!Integrating!

the!Exceptionalist!N arrativ e!of!the !Am erica n!E xp erien ce!into !W o rld!Hist o ry." !78%'4*%+#$,3'?#&9"+#$,B'<%N#%G!106,!

no.!5!(2001):!1692-1720.!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 14!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!The!oil!embargo!is!often!considered!a!proximate!cause!of!the!attacks!on!Pearl!Harbor.!Without!access!to!oil,!the!

Japanese!es tim ate d!th ey !ha d!a !m ax im u m !of!tw o !ye ar’s!s up p ly,!a!fac t!tha t!ha d!e no rm o u s!co ns eq u en ce s!for!th e!

Japanese!ec on o m y.!!

!Scott!D.!Sagan,!"The!Origins!of!the!Pa cif ic!W ar."!78%'H"D+3,B'"('U39%+=#&$#IB#3,+-'?#&9"+-!18,!no.!4!(1988):!893-922;!

Ronald!H.!Spector,!`,:B%'4:,#3&9'98%'1D3F'78%'4*%+#$,3';,+'G#98'H,I,3.!(New!York:!Simon!a nd !S ch us ter ,!20 12 ). !

!On!the!intelligence!failure,!see!David!Kahn,!"The!Intelligence!Failure!of!Pearl!Harbor."!A"+%#:3'4((,#+&!70,!no.!5!

(1991):!138-152.!There!is!a!long-standing!and!contentious!debate!concerning!the!responsibility!for!that!failure.!For!

details,!see!Emily!S.!Rosenberg,!4'),9%';8#$8';#BB'W#N%F'6%,+B'?,+E"+'#3'4*%+#$,3'Q%*"+-'(Durham,!NC:!Du ke !

University!Press,!2005),!34-52.!

!Hawaii!did!not!become!a!state!until!1959.!

!For!more!on!the!experiences!of!Allied!captives!in!Japan,!see!Brian!MacArthur,!1D+N#N#3:'98%'1G"+=F'6+#&"3%+&'"('

98%'H,I,3%&%'#3'98%'A, +'`,& 9/'JKTS LTV!(New!York:!Ra nd o m !H ou se,!20 05 );!Sim o n!P .!MacKenzie,!"The!Treatment!of!

Prisoners!of!War!in!World!War!II."!78%'H"D+3,B'"('Q"=%+3'?#&9"+-!66,!no.!3!(1994):!487-520;!Philip!R.!Piccigallo,!78%'

H,I,3%&%'"3 '7+#, BF'4BB#%= '; , +'>+#* % &'C I %+, 9#"3 &'#3'98 %'` ,& 9/'JKT Va JKVJ!(Austin:!Un iversity!o f!Te xas !Press ,!1980 ).!

!The!President!does!not!appear!on!the!floor!of!Congress!without!an!express!invitation.!!

!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Remarks!to!Cabinet!Members!and!Legislative!Leaders,”!December!7,!1941,!1399a,!FDR!

Speech!File,!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt!Presidential!Library,!p.13.!

!These!drafts!are!available!at!the!Library!itself!and!are!digitized!on!line!where!they!can!be!found!through!the!

finding!aid!for!the !M as ter!Sp e ech !File:!

http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/archives/collections/franklin/index.php?p=collections/findingaid&id=58 2!

!Rosenberg,!4'),9%';8#$8';#BB'W#N%.!See!also!Rebecca !O nio n ,!“FDR’s!First!Draft!o f!H is!’D a y!o f!Infa m y ’!Sp ee ch ,!

With!His!Notes,”!December!8,!2014,!78%'!,DB9,!

http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_vault/2014/12/08/history_of_pearl_harbor_day_of_infamy_speech_first_draft.h

tml!

!Emily!Rosenberger!argues!that!this!frame!resonated!with!the!nation’s!frontier!tradition.!See!Rosenberger,!4'),9%'

;8#$8';#BB'W#N%,!12-14.!

!It!is!freque n tly !in vo k e d !in !h ist o rie s!o f!t h e!war.!See,!for!example,!Walter!Lord,!),-'"('U3(,*-/']^98'433#N%+&,+-F'

78%'>B,&&#$'4$$"D39'"('98%'\"*E#3:'"('6%,+B'?,+E"+!(New!York:!MacMillan,!1957).!

!This!characterization!aligned!with!the!racist!stereotypes!prevalent!at!the!time!and!reflected!throughout!the!war!

in!the!dep ict io ns !o f!th e !Ja p an e se !a s!in se c ts,!a p es ,!an d !v er m in .!S e e!Sam !Keen,!A,$%&'"('98%'`3%*-F'<%(B%$9#"3&'"('

98%'?"&9#B%'U*,:#3, 9#"3 F'78%'6& -$8 "B": -'"('`3 * #9-'(Minneapolis,!M N :!O lym p ic!M a rketin g,19 86 );!Da vid!M.!Kennedy,!

“Culture!Wars:!The!Sources!and!Uses!of!Enmity!in!American!History,”!in!eds.!Ragnhild!Fiebig-von!Hase!and!Irsula!

Lehmkuhl!`3%*-'U*,:%&'#3'4*%+#$,3'?#&9"+-!(Oxford,!NY:!B ergh ah n !Bo ok s,!1997),!353-355.!

!Robert!J.!Brown,!Q,3#IDB,9#3:'98%'`98%+F'78%'6"G%+'"('\+",=$,&9'<,=#"'#3'78#+9#%&'4*%+#$,!(New!York:!

McFarland!&!Company,!1998),!117–120.!

!Karlyn!Kohrs!Campbell!and!Kathleen!Hall!Jamieson,!)%%=&')"3%'#3';"+=&F'6+%&#=%39#,B'<8%9"+#$',3='98%'.%3+%&'

"('."N%+3,3$%'(Chicago:!University!of!Chicag o!P ress,!19 90 ),!105 .!!

!Thomas!A.!Guinsberg,!78%'6D+&D#9'"('U&"B,9#"3#&*'#3'98%'03#9%='19,9%&'1%3,9%'(+"*'!%+&,#BB%&'9"'6%,+B'?,+E"+!

(New!York:!Ga rlan d,!19 82 );!T.R.!F eh ren bach,!AP)P<PR&'03=%$B,+%=';,+F'JKMKLJKTJ!(New!York:!David!McKay,!1967).!

!On!Roosevelt’s!tactics,!see!John!M.!Murphy,!"No!End!Save!Victory:!FDR!and!the!End!of!Isolationism!1936-1941,"!

in!Q,@#3:'98%'>,&%F'4=N"$,$-',3='HD=:*%39'#3'6DEB#$'4+:D*%39,!ed.!Kathryn !M.!Olson,!Michael!William!Pfau,!

Benjamin!Ponder,!and!Kirt!H.!Wilson!(East!Lansing:!Michigan!State!University!Press,!2012).!On!the!idea!of!presence,!

see!Chaim!Perelman!and!Lucie!Olbrechts-Tyteca,!78%'O%G'<8%9"+#$F'4'7+%,9#&%'"3'4+:D*%39,9#"3/!trans.!John!

Wilkinso n !a n d !P u rce ll!Weaver!(No tr e!D a me,!IN:!Unive rs ity!o f !N o tre !D a m e !P res s,!1 9 69 ),!1 1 5-120.!

!See,!for!example,!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Radio!Address!to!the!New!York!?%+,B='7+#ED3%!Forum,”!October!26,!

1939,!554-558,!6DEB#$'6,I%+&,!556-557.'This!argument!was!made!both!by!FDR!and!his!surrogates.!See!also,!Henry!L.!

Stimson,!(by!this!time!Secretary!of!War),!“Our!Duty!is!Clear,”!!#9,B'1I%%$8%&!August!15,!1939,!647-648.'

!Ronald!Reagan’s!address!after!the!>8,BB%3:%+!explosion!would!be!another!case!in!point.!!

!Robert!A.!Divine,!78%'UBBD&#"3'"('O%D9+,B#9-!(Chicago:!Un iversity !of!C hica go !Pres s,!196 2),!30 .!

!Roosevelt,!“Address!at!Chicago,”!407.!

!Roosevelt,!“Address!at!Chicago,”!408.!

!Dalleck,!A+,3@B#3')P<""&%N%B9,!149.!

!"#$%&'"(')%*"$+,$-!12!(2017):!1-15!! ! 15!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!James!M ac G rego r!B urn s,!<""&%N%B9F'78%'W#"3',3='98%'A"[/'JXXSLJKT^!(New!York:!H arc ou rt,!Bra ce,!Jov an o vich ,!

1956),!318.!!

!Robert!Edwin!Herzstein,!<""&%N%B9',3='?#9B%+F'6+%BD=%'9"';,+!(New!York:!Paragon !Ho u se,!19 89 ),!95.!!

!Michael!Lee,!Q"E#B#5#3:'>"3&%39F'6DEB#$'CI#3#"3',3='4*%+#$,3'A"+%#:3'6"B#$-/'JKMZLJKTZ!(Westport,!CT:!

Greenwood,!1976),!31-37.!See!also,!Thomas!N.!Guinsburg,!“Ebb!Tide!of!Isolationism:!The!Senate!Debate!on!the!

Arms!Embargo,!1937-1939,”!78%'>,3,=#,3'?#&9"+#$,B'4&&"$#,9#"3'?#&9"+#$,B'6,I%+&!JKZS!(Montrea l:!M cG ill!

University!Press,!1972),!313-334.!

!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Statement!by!Acting!Secretary!of!State!Welles,!Edited!and!Approved!by!the!President,!on!

the!Partition!of!Czech-Slovakia!by!Germany,”!March!17,!1939,!165-166,!6DEB#$'6,I%+&,!166.!

!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“The!Five!Hundred!and!Thirty-Seventh!Press!Conference)!Excerpts,”!April!8,!1939,!188-

191,!6DEB#$'6,I%+&,!189.!

!It!made !th e !list !o f!to p !1 0 0!s p e e ch e s !o f!th e !twentieth!ce n tu r y!a n d !is !th e !o n ly!State!o f!the!Union!address!to!do!so.!

See!Stephen!E.!Lucas!and!Martin!J.!Medhurst,!eds.,!;"+=&'"(','>%39D+-F'78%'9"I'J^^'&I%%$8%&/'JK^^LJKKKP'(New!

York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2008).!

!Franklin!D.!Roosevelt,!“Annual!Message!to!Congress,”!January!6,!1941,!663-678,!6DEB#$'6,I%+&,!664.!

!Roosevelt,!“Annual!Message!to!Congress,”!672.!

!Robert!Ivie!has!been!the!most!consistent!analyst!on!this!point.!See!Robert!L.!Ivie,!“Images!of!Savagery!in!

American!Justifications!for!War,”!>"**D3#$,9#"3'Q"3":+,I8&!47!(1980):!279-294;!Robert!L.!Ivie,!“Evil!Enemy!

Versus!Agonistic!Other:!Rhetorical!Constructions!of!Terrorism,”!78%'<%N#%G'"('`=D$,9#"3/'6%=,:":-/',3='>DB9D+,B'

19D=#%&!25!(2003)’!Robert!L.!Ivie,!“Literalizing!the!Metaphor!of!Soviet!Savagery:!President!Truman’s!Plain!Style,”!

1"D98%+3'1I%%$8'>"**D3#$,9#"3'H"D+3,B'51!(1986):!91-105.!!!!!

!Stuckey,!.""='O%#:8E"+P'!

!Victor!Sebenstein,!JKT]F'78%'Q,@#3:'"('98%'Q"=%+3';"+B=P'(New!York:!Vintage,!201 4).!

!For!a!discussion!of!this,!see!Casey,!Steven.!>,D9#"D&'>+D&,=%F'A+,3@B#3')P'<""&%N%B9/'4*%+#$,3'6DEB#$'CI#3#"3/',3='

98%';,+',:,#3&9'O ,5 #'.%+* , 3- !(O x ford !U nive rsity!Pre ss,!20 01 ),!110-111.!

!Sebenstein,!JKT]/'372-3.!!

!On!the!one!hand,!this!was!a!powerful!argument!in!favor!of!civil!rights.!See!Mary!L.!Dudziak,!>"B=';,+'>#N#B'<#:89&F'

<,$%',3='98%'U*,:%'"('4*%+#$,3')%*"$+,$-!(Princeton,!NJ:!Prin ceto n !Un ivers ity!Pres s,!201 1).!O n!th e!o the r,!it!

tended!the!natio n!to w ard !anti- co mm u nist!hysteria.!See!Joel!Kovel,!<%='?D39#3:'#3'98%'6+"*#&%='W,3=F'

439#$"**D3#&*',3='98%'Q,@#3:'"('4*%+#$,!(New!York:!Basic !Bo ok s,!1994).!

!Mary!E.!Stuckey,!"Competing!Foreign!Policy!Visions:!Rhetorical!Hybrids!After!the!Cold!War."!;%&9%+3'H"D+3,B'"('

>"**D3#$,9#"3'59,!no.!3!(1995):!214-227.!

!See!Rosenberg,!4'),9%';8#$8';#BB'W#N%/!174-189.!